13) Genetics
The rabbit has 44 chromosomes, as is attested to by numerous publications (Nichols et al., 1965; Ray & Williams, 1966; Issa et al., 1968; Hsu & Benirschke, 1967). It thus differs from hares and other Lagomorpha which generally have higher chromosome numbers (Dave et al., 1965; Stock, 1976). Hageltorn & Gustavsson (1979) published the findings of chromosome banding studies. The "sex chromatin" or “Barr body” is evident in fibroblasts (Melander, 1962; Hulliger et al., 1963), and early sex determination of blastocysts was thus accomplished by Edwards & Gardner (1967). Initial gene assignments have been reported by Soulié & de Grouchy (1982, 1983). Martin & Shaver (1979) reported on a fertile male rabbit with an extremely small Y-chromosome. Most recently, Korstanje et al. (2003) have established linkages to certain chromosomes with microsatellite markers.(See below).

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Karyotypes of male and female domestic rabbits.
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Spontaneous hybrids between the domestic rabbit and other leporids have not been described. Chang et al. (1964), however, found that artificial insemination of rabbits with semen of the snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) yielded some fertilized ova, but almost all eventually degenerated before implantation. Only one such hybrid implanted and developed a small embryo. When snowshoe hares were inseminated with rabbit semen and pretreated with hCG, 90% were fertilized and two young were produced (Chang, 1965). Blastocyst transfer failed to induce a normal endometrial response.
Fujimoto et al. (1975) examined the number of blastomeres and chromosomes of superovulated, fertilized rabbit ova. Approximately 9% of these ova were chromosomally abnormal, including exhibiting triploidy. Triploidy can also be induced by delayed fertilization and it is mostly the result of digyny (Shaver & Carr, 1969; see also Austin, 1967). Milde et al. (2001) studied a "proteolipid protein 2 mRNA" expression in embryos. They found this motif, that is similar to PP2/A4 of man, mouse and sheep, to be expressed at the posterior pole of the gastrulating embryo on day 7.
Numerous hereditary diseases have been described in domestic rabbits. They are summarized by Kraus et al. (1984). Omphalocele and gastroschisis are not uncommon, according to Heldt (G. P. Heldt, UC San Diego, Personal communication).
The remarkable overpopulation of rabbits in Australia is legendary. Cooper & Herbert (2001) have recently reviewed its consequences. As few as 13 animals are said to have been the stock from which this expansive population derived. Added to this, in 1950, the myxomatosis virus was intentionally introduced in Australia, with massive deaths but with subsequent gradual resurgence of a resistant strain and modification of the virus. Similarly, calicivirus infection has been unable to significantly reduce the rabbit population in Australia, owing probably to mutations, selection, and transplacental antibody exposure.
"The genetic map of the rabbit is underdeveloped…"stated Korstanje et al. (2001) in a paper on the analysis and mapping of various biochemical markers in two inbred strains of rabbit. They found some polymorphisms, and none in some other systems. The paper provides access to modern genetic studies of rabbit genotypes.
14) Immunology
Early studies of the rabbit placentation were designed to understand the transport of immunoglobulins from mother to fetus (Mossman, 1926). It has since become clear that much of this transport is the result of the inverted yolk sac activity. Because of their gestational characteristics, rabbits have also been used to better understand possible modes for gene therapy (Heikkila et al., 2001). Intravascular, guided catheters were employed for the attempted infection with various gene constructs. No placentitis occurred; adenovirus constructs were the most infective.
Korstanje et al. (2001) studied various immune and serologic markers in inbred strains of rabbits.
15) Pathological features
Two comprehensive reviews of diseases of rabbits have been published, one by Palmer (1978), and the other by Kraus et al. (1984). Most notorious of leporid diseases probably is the nearly 100% fatal myxomatosis. The virus responsible for this infection was introduced into the Australian population in 1950. This was undertaken in an effort to eliminate the rabbit pest experienced in that country (Cooper & Herbert, 2001). Rabbit hemorrhagic disease caused a significant mortality in adult rabbits in Spain (Villafuerte et al., 1994). Calicivirus infection is another serious illness of rabbits. The rabbit has also frequently served as a model for teratogenesis, and for in utero infections. Thus, Qian et al. (2000) showed convincingly that Schistosoma japonicum can be transmitted transplacentally. Likewise, Cere et al. (2000) affirmed that Pneumocystis can be acquired in utero. This organism is the cause of a nearly ubiquitous infection of adult rabbits. Davies et al. (2000) showed that fetal/placental infection occurs when E. coli organisms were placed endocervically during pregnancy. Leslie et al. (2000) followed the cytokine responses of pregnant rabbits that were infected in utero in the third trimester. Likewise, Gibbs et al. (2002) found that rabbit placentas and fetuses can become infected by intracervical injection of E. coli and that antibiotic therapy does not completely eradicate the fetal infection. Rabbits can also become infected, and they are ill after transmission, by the malignant catarrhal fever virus (Buxton & Reid, 1980). Infection with toxoplasma and encephalitozoon was shown by Waller & Bergquist (1982).
Experiments conducted by Kato et al. (2001) with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor showed thrombosis of placental vessels, with necrosis and abortion following. Different results were obtained in rats. Zook et al. (2001) studied the effect of estradiol and levonorgestrel administration to rabbits. They produced decidualization and decidual tumors. These lesions were not confined to female rabbits but occurred (in the spleens) of adult male rabbits as well.
Henderson (1954) was interested in resolving the question of absorption of fetal antigens into the pregnant doe and studied the possible continued placental growth after fetal demise. The latter had been claimed to occur in rhesus monkey pregnancies after fetal demise, but this was later disproved. She caused fetal demise surgically in rabbits or, more rapidly, by stilbestrol administration. Placental growth stopped and, so long as pregnancy continued with some live pups, the uterus did not contract. Leukocytic infiltration ensued and antigen transfer may have occurred after fetal demise.
Numerous genetic errors exist in the many different breeds of rabbit. Some of these errors were summarized by Fox (1975). Palmer (1978) pointed to the large percentage of spontaneous intrauterine resorptions and cautioned that this feature needs to be known when teratogenic studies are conducted, as experimental results may otherwise be misinterpreted.
Kaufmann-Bart & Fischer (2008) have reported a first case of chorocarcinoma in a domestica rabbit with lung metastases. Remarkably, the syncytial cells were immunopositive for anti-human hcg antibody.
16) Physiological data
Miller (1999) has superbly summarized much of what is known about rabbit physiology, reproduction, and endocrinology (see also Kraus et al., 1984). Hudson et al. (1999) observed rabbit and rat parturitions by videography. They found rabbit births to occur much more rapidly than those of rats, and stated that the pups are born already separated from the placenta. This is contrary to the statements by Miller (1999) who described maternal biting of the cord.
Papadopulos et al. (1999) developed fetoscopy in the rabbit model and showed that successful fetoscopic evaluations can be carried out in the rabbit, beginning with the second trimester.
In contrast to so many other mammalian species in which the ovary of newborns has oocytes that have completed their first meiotic division, in rabbits, this maturation occurs mostly postnatally (Teplitz & Ohno, 1963; Kennelly & Foote, 1966). The process of oogenesis peaks on postnatal days 12-14 and is completed on neonatal day 20.
Hagey et al. (1998) have used bile acid structural modifications that have taken place in evolution so as to ascertain disputed relationships among mammals and birds. They showed that rabbits have an unique bile acid form and discussed in this publication the possibility that either the notorious coprophagy of rabbits or their enormous cecum may have contributed to this feature. Glenister (1961) studied trophoblastic maturation of rabbits in organ culture.
17) Other resources
I am indebted to Dr. G. Heldt (UCSD) for these placentas. Cell strains of rabbits and of several Sylvilagus species and of Lepus californicus are available from CRES by contacting Dr. Oliver Ryder at oryder@ucsd.edu.
18) Other relevant features
Rabbits have been used for transporting sheep and cattle blastocysts over long distances. Thus, for instance, Sreean & Scanlon (1968) showed that blastocyst maturation and cleavage of eggs continued when cattle blastocysts were placed into the Fallopian tubes and uteri of pseudopregnant rabbits.
Mossman (1987) suggested that better studies are needed to definitively identify the origin and physiology of the multinucleated giant cells of the rabbit placenta. I believe that the uninucleate cells in the myometrium require study and clarification.
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