14) Immunology
Because of the high neonatal mortality from infectious diseases of camels, Kamber et al. (2001) studied the immunoglobulin G (IgG) supply by colostrum to newborns. The colostrum was found to have higher IgG concentrations than that of horse and cattle. The conclusion was reached that low intake of colostrum rather than low IgG was responsible for the neonatal mortality.
The immunoglobins of camelidae are unusual in that the antibody molecules lack light chains, being composed solely of heavy chains (Muyldermans, 2001; Spinelli et al., 2001).
15) Pathological features
All authors who discuss the gestational aspects of camelidae are impressed with the frequency of fetal deaths. The reason for these failures is usually obscure. Hanichen & Wiesner (1995) provided an overview of New World camelid deaths in zoos. Gastric phytobezoars, infectious diseases, and foam cell granulomas of the pleura were identified. A statistical survey of camelid deaths in the UK also showed a significant perinatal mortality (Davis et al., 1998). A survey of diseases in Jordanian dromedaries lists a 98% infection with intestinal parasites, 33% nasal myasis, and 44% hydatid cysts (Al-Rawashdeh et al., 2000; see also Elamin et al., 2001 for prenatal infection with hydatid cysts). Sarcoptic mange and trypanosomiasis were similarly frequent. Dromedaries often died from pneumonia and had gastric foreign bodies in 22% of cases. Griner (1983) cautions that phytobezoars, so commonly found in camelidae, should not be mistaken for foreign bodies. He also reported on the frequency of small lipid ?tumors of the liver, additional rare proliferative lesions, and on the occurrence of occasional congenital anomalies. In Ethiopia, Tefera & Gebreah (2001) identified trypanosomiasis, camel pox, skin parasites and balantidiasis as major problems. Testing for antibodies against Brucellaon 64 camels yielded negative results (El-Ansary et al., 2001). In California, where numerous llamas are being bred and kept as pets, coccidioidomycosis has been a significant health problem (Fowler et al., 1992). Wright et al. (1998) published the results of a survey among breeders of South American camelids in the UK. Neonatal mortality was a prominent problem for those breeders as well. Acute placentitis due to infection with Encephalitozoon cuniculi has recently been described in an alpaca by Webster et al. (2008). The organisms were confined to the trophoblast, were not found within the prematurely-born fetus, and the placental surface was covered with exudates.
The ovaries of the camelidae are partially enclosed in a bursa. Tibary & Anouassi (2001) identified an unusual "malformation" which they described as hydrobursitis. It is a collection of fluid that envelops the ovary and is responsible for sterility and abortions. Surgical ablation has some beneficial results. A remarkable case of peritonitis in a llama was described by Bedford et al. (1996). In this case, the placenta had entered the peritoneal cavity through a vaginal tear that occurred during delivery.
Kinne & Wernery (2002) studied the prevalence of coccidiosis (largely Eimeria sp.) in a large population of dromedaries in Dubai. They found 60% of camels older than one year had intestinal Eimeria cameli infection. In addition, many animals suffered subsequently enterotoxemia due to clostridia.
Sex reversal of a 74,XX, phenotypically male animal (with testes) was described in a llama by Wilker et al. (1994). In another case (Drew et al., 1999), multiple anomalies were present, a remnant of the Y-chromosome was excluded, and ovarian rather than testicular tissue was present. Lopez et al. (1998) reported another intersex llama with urinary obstruction. Tibary (1997) recorded many additional pathologic conditions of gestation and of the female reproductive tract. These include placentitis due to a variety of organisms. Freemartinism has been referred to above.
16) Physiologic data
Normal biochemical and hematological values of "racing dromedaries" were provided by Mohamed & Hussein (1999). Blood lipids were examined at different ages by Nazifi et al. (2000). There was a significant rise with age of cholesterol, triglyceride and HDL-cholesterol; LDL-cholesterol decreased. Cortisol levels were measured in alpacas around parturition and during weaning by Bravo et al. (2001). They were elevated in newborns and on the day of parturition.
In view of the peculiar nature of the red blood cells of the camelidae, the study by Warda & Zeisig (2000) is especially interesting. They examined the composition of the dromedary red cell membranes. There was 28.8% sphingomyelin, 12% phophatidylcholine, and phosphatidylserine each. Because of the shorter and less saturated fatty acid chains that they identified, the dromedary red cell membranes are more "fluid" than those of human red cells. Perhaps this explains their remarkable stretchability. Omorphos et al. (1989) found that the ellipsoid shape of camel erythrocytes is very stable and that the cytoskeleton differs from that of human red cells. In my experience, camelid red cells may expand with distilled water to 400% before they rupture. Asiatic camels also have a more rapidly moving front of G-6-PD on electrophoresis than the American camelids (Benirschke, 1967).
17) Other resources
Cell cultures of most camelidae can be obtained from the "Frozen Zoo" at CRES through contacting Dr. Oliver Ryder at: oryder@ucsd.edu.
18) Other remarks - What additional Information is needed?
There are only sparse records of the length of umbilical cords and placental weights. The function of multinucleate trophoblast remains unclear. Hormonal assessment of the placenta is incomplete.
Acknowledgement
Most of the animal photographs in these chapters come from the Zoological Society of San Diego. I appreciate also very much the help of the pathologists at the San Diego Zoo. The macroscopic pictures of the various placentas are a gift from Dr. Ahmed Tibary.
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