The chromosome number of cervidae is variable. The usually high chromosomal number in many deer species (around 2n=70) presumably reflects their closer relationships, while a few "outliers" are also somewhat removed from the mainstream of cervidae (see Yang et al, 1997). We have established the following chromosome numbers: Moose (70); Axis deer - chital (66); Hog deer (68); Roe deer (70); Barasingha deer (56); Red deer (68); Sambar deer 60; 64-65); Fallow deer - Dama (68); Père David's deer (68); Chinese water deer (Hydropotes inernis) (70); Red brocket deer (Mazama) (50); Reindeer (70); Pudu (70); White-tailed deer (70); Mule deer (70); Chinese muntjac (46); Indian muntjac (6/7) [see Hsu & Benirschke]. Since then, numerous chromosomal banding studies have been done on some of these species and additional species have also been studied: Tufted deer (Elaphodus cephalophus) 2n=46-48 (Shi et al., 1991); white-lipped deer (Cervus albirostris Przewalski) 2n=66 (Wang et al., 1982), and several other muntjacs. Eld's deer (Cervus eldi) has 2n=58 (Neitzel, 1979, she also lists another group of deer species). Sika deer (Cervus nippon hortulorum Swinhoe) has 2n=64-68 (Gustavsson & Sundt, 1969). Another complete listing may be found in Groves & Grubb (1987).
Evolutionary relationships have been discussed at the beginning of this chapter. Modern studies are beginning to provide further insight into disputed areas. Thus, the mtDNA of muntjacs was explored by Lan & Shi (1993). Repetitive DNA of cervids was used for evolutionary questions by Bogenberger et al. (1987). Chromosome "painting" led to a better understanding of muntjac chromosomal fusions (Yang et al., 1995). mtDNA was used in studying hybrids between mule and white-tailed deer (Carr et al, 1986), and so forth.
Genetic heterozygosity positively influenced fetal size and growth in white-tailed deer, while number of fetuses correlated negatively (Cothran et al., 1983).
14) Immunology
Lymphocytic infiltration of the uterine mucosa/epithelium is a frequent, if not regular, feature of ruminant uteri. Lee et al. (1995) studied this in six species of deer. They found a significant cellular increase to occur from early implantation to mid-gestation. They observed also that the size of granules of these cells varies greatly and that they increase with gestation. The investigators observed that these lymphocytes tend to be close to regions where the trophoblastic binucleated cells fuse with the endometrial epithelium. Here they produce the trinucleate cells and give up their granules. The precise reason for these changes remains unknown but "immune recognition" is suspected..
15) Pathological features
Fetal demise of one of twins has been described in an elk uterus (Saunders, 1955), and Mansell & Cringan (1968) found two dead female fetuses with a live female triplet in the uterus of a white-tailed deer. The dead fetuses were enclosed in a single chorion (? monozygotic) and their cotyledons had detached. They referred to other cases of this fetal absorption and attributed it to poor nutrition. We have seen this in axis deer and found no good explanation for the demise.
Major die-offs can occur in island deer due to overcrowding. This was described for sika deer by Christian et al. (1960). In Texas, abnormal antler growth of white-tailed deer was the result of hypogonadism, presumed to result from some poison (Taylor et al, 1964).
Numerous infections have been described in a variety of deer: Toxoplasmosis in mule deer (Dubey, 1982); Theileria cervi infection in white-tailed deer (Schaeffler, 1963); Pneumostrongylus tenuis infection of white-tailed deer (Anderson, 1965), and others. Most important at present is the transmission of the spirochetal organism Borrelia burgdorferi that causes Lyme disease and is transmitted from wild mice to man by the deer tick Amblyomma americanum (e.g. Ebel et al., 2000).
Ratcliffe (1968) reported abnormal antler growth and "wasting" in captive white-tailed deer and related it to abnormal pituitary/adrenal activity. Trophoblastic tumors have not been described, nor are ascending intrauterine infections features of cervid gestations.
The San Diego Zoo has traditionally held many cervid species and, consequently, Griner (1983) gathered much pathological material. Most deaths he recorded were due to trauma, anesthesia, fracture, fights and old age. Dental disease was not uncommon in captivity and outbreaks of malignant catarrhal fever and of blue tongue virus infection were recorded. Only two congenital heart diseases, one cleft palate and one congenital goiter were observed as anomalies, and very rare neoplasms (one lymphosarcoma; a biliary carcinoma in an axis deer, even though deer have no gall bladder) were found. Some parasites posed a continued problem, but reproductive pathology occurred rarely.
16) Physiological data
The placenta of some deer species produces a pregnancy-specific protein B PSPB) which Huang and colleagues (1999) found to be similar, in preparations from moose and elk, to that extracted from cow and sheep placentas. The growth of mule deer fetuses and embryos was methodically recorded by Hudson & Browman (1959). Serum protein profiles of white-tailed and mule deer were studied by Cowan & Johnston (1962). They found great similarity in quantities, but different electrophoretic mobility in these sympatric Odocoileus species.
I am not aware of any studies of blood flow, blood volume, or blood pressures records. It is well known, however, that many deer species have a physiologic tendency to develop sickled erythrocytes. In contrast to human sickle cell anemia patients whose sickling occurs in oxygen-poor environments, that of deer species is initiated by increased oxygenation. The sickle cells are very similar to human sickled red blood cells, with tactoids and similar shapes, but there is no disease associated with deer sickling. It is due to hemoglobin polymorphism. (Undritz et al., 1960; Pritchard et al., 1963; Naik et al., 1964; Kitchen et al., 1964).
17) Other resources
For a wide variety of cervid species the "Frozen Zoo" of CRES at San Diego Zoo possesses fibroblast cell lines and most have had chromosomal analysis.
18) Other relevant features and information needed in future
Several species of deer have become farm animals, especially so with the advent of a complete understanding of their reproductive physiology. Thus, Fletcher (2001) gives examples of farming of Cervus elaphus, C. e. canadensis, Dama dama and D. d. mesopotamica, with successful embryo transfer and other artificial breeding techniques. We know too little of the endocrinology and cord lengths. Also, do placental abnormalities occur?
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